The Risk of Sexually Transmitted Infection AIDS †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Risk of Sexually Transmitted Infection AIDS. Answer: Introduction Sexually transmitted diseases are infectious diseases that are passed on from one person to another through sexual contact via blood, semen or vaginal fluid. Examples include gonorrhea, syphilis and AIDS. The risk of sexually transmitted infection (STIs) among men who have sex with men (MSM) is higher than in males who have sex with women. Men who have sex with men and women are at a greater risk of getting infected with STIs than the MSM. A common STI that afflicts people with multiple partners is gonorrhoeae. Gonorrhea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The infection is usually asymptomatic and may cause urethritis, pharyngitis, cervicitis, salpingitis or proctitis (CDC, 2014). Men and women can get affected with this infectious disease. The infection makes people susceptible to infection due to transmission of HIV, so it is important that patients seek timely treatment and safeguard themselves from AIDS. It has been observed that gonorrhoeae infection can be evidenc ed in extragenital regions of the body that can be detected after a rectal or oropharyngeal diagnosis (Lutz, 2015). So, screening in asymptomatic MSM is recommended for detection of gonorrhoeae and appropriate therapy should be started even if there is no presence of gonorrhoeae infection in the urogenital region. A study has reported 0.2 to 24% cases of rectal gonorrhoeae among MSM and a 0.5 to 16.5% prevalence of pharyngeal gonorrhoeae(Chan, et al., 2016). The problem of gonorrhoeae infections is therefore a serious public health problem and the propensity of people in same sex relationships increases when they have multiple partners. In case of MSMW, the transmission of the infection to and from female partners results in higher risk of transmission. Belonging to the (lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender) LGBT community makes the patients difficult to access healthcare than the heterosexual individuals in any population. The social and sexual stigma associated with this community makes it very likely for them to experience healthcare disparities. Compared to the heterosexuals the LGBT are discredited due to their sexual orientation and may even be denigrated by the society. Health professionals are known to show positive approach when dealing with patients from LGBT community but there are cases where negative experiences mar the treatment process. Much of this misled attitude is because the curricula at medical schools do not teach content related to specific health issues that affect the gay community (Brennan, Barnsteiner, Siantz, Cotter, Everett, 2011). This makes the healthcare providers uncomfortable when dealing with issues that are specific to the care that the LGBT patients require. Many of them display homophobic att itudes and do not have knowledge about specific health issues that the LGBT patients face. This means that the training is deficient in making health professionals culturally competent when dealing with developmental health problems faced by homosexuals across their life spans. Often lack of exposure to issues faced by the LGBT community, nursing or medical staff is ill-equipped to address the medical needs. Lack of sensitivity also affects the patients because in the absence of empathy they feel discouraged to share their illness related issues with healthcare personnel. STIs are even less understood and staff may fail to advise patients about safe practices and to reduce risky behaviour. Prevention of STIs is a public health priority. Risky behaviour by MSM contributes to the growing risk of infection with HIV, syphilis, gonorrhoeae and other diseases. Behavioural interventions can reduce the risk of STIs in men who have sex with men. Multiple anonymous partners increase the risk of gonorrhoeae and other STIs. Substance abuse through use of crystal methamphetamine taken for improving sexual performance also increases risk. Gonococcal rates in rectum have increased among MSM in cases where they are already infected with HIV. This makes it important for the healthcare professionals to take an accurate history about the patient's history about multiple partners and confirmation about repeated use of crystal methamphetamine. Insertive oral sex is an additional risk for suffering from pharyngeal gonorrhoeae (at a rate of 7%) and urethral gonorrhoeae. Rectal gonorrhoeae has been diagnosed in 5.4% of the cases. MSM with a prior diagnosis of HIV have a greater likelihood of being diagnosed with asymptomatic gonorrhoeae than those who have not tested positive for HIV. Screening the MSM for gonorrhoeae may reduce risky behaviour. Precautionary approach involves nucleic acid amplification testing of men who report insertive intercourse during the past one year for urethral infection of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. A nucleic acid amplification test for rectal infection may be done in individuals for Neisseria gonorrhoeae if they report receptive anal intercourse during the past year. Pharyngeal specimen tests to check for infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae are required in case where oral intercourse is reported by the patient (Workowski, 2015)In case of women who have sex with women (WSW) may also indulge in risky behaviour that makes them prone to acquire sexually transmitted infections (Trebach, Chaulk, Page, Tuddenham, Ghanem, 2015). The very nature of the required tests and the kind of trust between the doctor and patient requires that the patient be treated with sufficient understanding so that disclosures of a private nature are made by the patient. Display of even a small hint of discomfort or differential treatment might be understood by the patient as hostility. Due to the social and sexual stigma attached to their sexual orientation many people from the LGBT community hesitate in accessing healthcare. Many among the MSM have had a history of STIs, due to a large number of anonymous partners, a childhood history of sexual abuse, associated psychological problems and a history of substance abuse. As a result many people from the LGBT community face social exclusion and exhibit symptoms of anxiety and depression. The use of drugs increases their propensity to indulge in risky behaviour and unsafe sex. Many among the community have complained of having been victims of forced sex by their most recent partners. This possibility is much higher than that in the heterosexual population. There is now also an understanding that it is not because of lack of awareness that gay men get involved in risky behaviour but it is due to psychological reasons (O'Leary, 2014). Role of various stakeholders can contribute to prevent gonorrhoeae among the LGBT The sensitization of the medical professionals towards the LGBT patients, their psychology and their need to be understood should be part of the curriculum. Lack of prior exposure to the LGBT patients during practice should not make them uncomfortable when dealing with them. The fact that there is a stigma against the LGBT should not hamper their treatment. Several steps have been suggested to include LGBT content during nursing education so that comprehensive healthcare can be delivered to them. Teaching and learning of relevant courses can be enhanced through simulation and incorporation of case studies. Agencies that serve the interests of the LGBT community and understand their issues can be partnered with. Students should be able to interact with patients from sexually diverse backgrounds. It has been suggested that the nursing curriculum should be infused with content relevant to the LGBT. Even material such as films and documentaries on the LGBT can be utilized in the classroo m for proper introduction to issues faced by the LGBT in the healthcare system (Fidelindo, Kim, Min, 2014). New and updated methods of diagnosis are required for the LGBT population when suspected of gonorrhoeae. The Centre for Disease Control recommends the use of Nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT) for the diagnosis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections rather than the culture test because of better sensitivity. However culture tests are important when checking for antibiotic sensitivity. The test allows for better testing of the extragenital testing for the presence of Neisseria gonorrhoeae infections(Barbee, Dombrowski, Kerani, Golden, 2014). Messages of prevention through messages targeted at MSM who are not yet identified as gay may respond positively to messages that promote safe sex and less risky behaviour. The altered behaviour may lead to lead to less transmission of STIs (Johnson, et al., 2008). Gonorrhoeae among women if left untreated can cause pelvic inflammatory disease. Research on the health aspects that pertain to the LGBT is not very common. Very few papers on the subject of gonorrhoeae in the LGBT community are available. In the absence of sufficient research on the subject the understanding of the difficulties by this sub-population will be less. Policy makers depend on social activists backed by scientific research to be able to frame policy that can alleviate problems and difficulties faced by the LGBT in the healthcare system. So, more research in the area is required. Gay men and transgender individuals are more likely to suffer from STIs. Most health disparities faced by them are due to homophobia and stigma that lead to discrimination against them(Fidelindo Nathan, 2011). Patients from sexual and gender minorities re at a disadvantage because often physicians treating them lack the specific knowledge about health issues that are specific to them. Training of physicians in non-discriminatory approach while treating the sexual minorities is important (Jabson, Mitchell, Doty, 2016). As many as 27% patients from the LGBT have reported that physicians were prejudiced against them, while 2% patients felt that the hostility was rather open. 21% patients have reported that the physician was non-supportive on learning that they were either gay or lesbian. In fact up to 30% physicians have been found to be homophobic (Lee, et al., 2008). Given such a homophobic environment in the health industry it is difficult for the people from the LGBT decide whether they should disclose their identity or not. In the absence of disclosure the specific health problems, particularly with respect to STIs cannot be treated effectively. Apart from the social, medical difficulties and unique association of gonorrhoeae with the LGBT community, there is another problem that is raising its head, that of multidrug resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae. To counter the menace of the public health concern posed by this organism, it is important to understand that the high usage of known antimicrobials, less than optimum monitoring of the antibiotic resistance the gonococcal infections may become more difficult to treat. The understanding of how the mechanism of resistance has evolved may pave the path for the discovery of novel antibiotics against this pathogen (Unemoa Shafer, 2014). Conclusion The prevalence of gonococcal disease among the LGBT community has become a public health challenge due to several factors. The risky behaviour associated with MSM wherein multiple partners, promiscuity and exposure to the pathogens causes the disease in many of the men in the sexually active age-group. The asymptomatic infection may cause urethritis, pharyngitis, cervicitis, salpingitis or proctitis and is usually diagnosed by culture tests of swabs of affected area or by nucleic acid amplification test on samples from the affected parts. In women, the propensity for the disease is there among the lesbian women. The social and sexual attached to the people from the sexual minorities makes it difficult for them to access treatment. Nursing staff and physicians may be homophobic and at times lack in training to be able to understand the problems specific to the LGBT because of deficient curricula. The nature of the disease makes it imperative that there be a relationship of trust betwe en the doctor and the patient, Failing which the patient may not return for follow-up treatment if made to feel uncomfortable during the process of treatment and diagnosis. Several people from the LGBT community have been abused as children and thus resort to risky behaviour as adults. Research activity in the area of gonococcal treatment specifically for the LGBT is less. Therefore a lot of gaps remain in understanding of how to deal with the issue of STIs among this target population. The treatment of gonorrhoeae has also become a challenge due to the development of antibiotic resistance. Very few antibiotics are now effective against the pathogen. The mechanism of resistance when understood will provide clues for development of new therapy. Treatment will require understanding that envelops all aspects of disease transmission. References Barbee, L., Dombrowski, J., Kerani, R., Golden, M. (2014). Effect of Nucleic Acid Amplification Testing on Detection of Extragenital Gonorrhea and Chlamydial Infections in Men Who Have Sex With Men Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinic Patients. Sexually Tramitted Diseases, 41 (3), 168-172. Brennan, A., Barnsteiner, J., Siantz, M., Cotter, V., Everett, J. (2011). Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, or intersexed content for nursing curricula. Journal of Professional Nursing, 28(2):96-104. CDC. (2014). casedefinitions-2014.pdf. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov: https://www.cdc.gov/std/stats/casedefinitions-2014.pdf Chan, P., Robinette, A., Montgomery, M., Almonte, A., Cu-Uvin, S., Lonks, J., . . . Hardy, E. (2016). Extragenital Infections Caused by Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae: A Review of the Literature. Infectious Diseses in Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 2016:5758387. Fidelindo, A. D., Kim, J., Min, S. (2014). Addressing Health Care Disparities in the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Population: A Review of Best Practices. American Journal of Nursing, 114(6):24-34. Fidelindo, L., Nathan, L. (2011). Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Health. American Journal of Nursing, 111(11):11. Jabson, J., Mitchell, J., Doty, S. (2016). Associations between non-discrimination and training policies and physicians attitudes and knowledge about sexual and gender minority patients: a comparison of physicians from two hospitals. BMC Public Health, 16: 256 doi: 10.1186/s12889-016-2927-y. Johnson, W., Diaz, R., Flanders, W., Goodman, M., Hill, A., Holtgrave, D., . . . McClellan, W. (2008). Behavioral interventions to reduce risk for sexual transmission of HIV among men who have sex with men. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (3):CD001230. Lee, R., Melhado, T., Chacko, K., White, K., Huebschmann, A., Crane, L. (2008). The Dilemma of Disclosure: Patient Perspectives on Gay and Lesbian Providers. Journl of General Internal Medicine, 23(2): 142147. Lutz, A. (2015). Screening for Asymptomatic Extragenital Gonorrhea and Chlamydia in Men Who Have Sex with Men: Significance, Recommendations, and Options for Overcoming Barriers to Testing. LGBT Health, 2(1):27-34. O'Leary, D. (2014). The syndemic of AIDS and STDS among MSM. The Linacre Quarterly, 81(1): 1237. Trebach, J., Chaulk, C., Page, K., Tuddenham, S., Ghanem, K. (2015). Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis among women reporting extragenital exposures. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 42(5):233-9. Unemoa, M., Shafer, W. (2014). Antimicrobial Resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae in the 21st Century: Past, Evolution, and Future. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 27(3): 587613. Workowski, K. B. (2015). Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2015. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 64(RR3);1-137.

The Dead Butcher and His Fiend-Like Queen free essay sample

Malcolm is referring to Macbeth as the â€Å"dead butcher† and to Lady Macbeth as â€Å"his fiend-like queen. † A butcher in the use of this play is a person who kills showing no regret for their actions or reason for the killings. The fiend as Lady Macbeth is to say she is very evil and has no morals, able to bend other’s wills to equal her own giving them a confused air of what they really want. On the other hand to say Macbeth was always a butcher is an unfair evaluation of him, as it doesn’t reflect the views that the whole of Scotland had at the beginning of the play. Fiend is a brilliant way to describe Lady Macbeth as she is the one who initially introduced the feeling of evil into the play and into Macbeth leading him to commit the act of treason against God’s representative on Earth, King Duncan. To begin with Macbeth is a highly respected Thane of Glamis with a set life for his wife, Lady Macbeth and himself. He is referred to as â€Å"noble† and a â€Å"valiant soldier† not at all a butcher and would die in battle for his King. His noble acts then promote him to Thane of Cawdor. Following his well-deserved promotion Lady Macbeth had a letter delivered about Macbeth’s encounter with witches, their prophecies and his transfer to Thane of Cawdor. Lady Macbeth hatches a plan to ensure all of the witches prophecies become reality by getting rid of the one thing that stands in their way: King Duncan. However her plan is interrupted by Macbeth who is loyal to the King and refuses to be a part of the fiendish act. She knows he has ambition and it would be difficult for her to convince him to commit the act of treason, â€Å"yet do I fear thy nature; It is too full o’th’ milk of human kindness to catch the nearest way. Thou wouldst be great, art not without ambition, but without the illness should attend it. † Lady Macbeth’s fiend-like qualities have shown after Macbeth’s letter is received. She seems to show a strong hate towards the limitations of her sex. Being a woman traditionally holds feelings of sensitivity and being beautiful limits her from being capable of committing murder. In her famous soliloquy she says: â€Å"Come, you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here and fill me, from the crown to the toe, top-full of direst cruelty. † She wishes to be removed from her body to be able to commit the deed which cannot be done while she is a woman. Further in her soliloquy she says: â€Å"Make thick my blood, stood up th’ access and passage to remorse†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Not only does she want the limitations removed, but she also wishes for the guilt to end, an end to her remorse and emotions. This combination will enable her to become more of a butcher than Macbeth ever was. Throughout the whole play Lady Macbeth gives the definition to the term fiend. Macbeth again is seen to disprove the image of a butcher before Duncan’s murder as he reconsiders whether his actions will have any effect and whether he should continue or not. Macbeth says: â€Å"First, I am his kinsman and his subject- strong both against the deed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and argues against the murder of Duncan, he doesn’t believe that it is right that he kills Duncan due to family and royal relations. Macbeth succeeds in persuading himself against the murder of Duncan, as shown when he says, â€Å"I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent, but only vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself and falls on the other†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He compares his inner ambition to the riding of a horse, but then he states the he has no reason to leap high off of his horse to kill the king because he knows he will eventually fall. Clearly no butcher would freeze and think over their actions before actually committing them, and a real butcher would never be able to stop themselves from doing the senseless act that is described as butchery. At this point in the play Lady Macbeth is shown to use her methods of persuasion on Macbeth himself. One of these is her knowing of his weaknesses and she uses this to her advantage to change his opinion again. She says: â€Å"To be the same in thine own act and valour as thou art in desire? Wouldst thou have that which thou esteem’st the ornament of life, and live a coward in thine own esteem†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In this single statement Lady Macbeth attacks Macbeth’s honour and bravery as well as his inner ambition. Macbeth is being told to act as he thinks and becoming cowardly for not doing it. The unlikeliness of Macbeth being called a coward before lets the comment gets under his skin and tries to prove to his wife that his courage is intact. However, Lady Macbeth’s intentions are not understood until she backs up her argument to why Duncan should be murdered: â€Å"I would, while it was smiling in my face, have plucked my nipple from his boneless gums and dashed the brains out, had I so sworn as you have done to this. † No human says but a fiend, what mother would intentionally hurt their child even if they had sworn to do it? Macbeth is not a butcher, and Lady Macbeth is not just a fiend. As shown, although Malcolm’s statement does describe certain aspects of the personalities it is a vague description of the whole extent of their characters. Macbeth is a brave and valiant man who had been turned to butchery by weakness and his desire to gain power, exploited by his wife. Fiendish is a more decent way to describe Lady Macbeth but it still lacks the ability to capture her true nature as disturbed and evil. It would be fair to say that the statement tries to create an overall evaluation of both characters in a single statement but in the process makes them seem less dramatic and complex than they actually are.

Sample of a Basic Introduction For An Essay About Personality

Sample of a Basic Introduction For An Essay About PersonalityThe sample of a basic introduction for an essay about personality will provide the student with an introduction to the topic. After this introduction, a student is allowed to expand upon it in their own creative way. The important thing to remember is that when a student takes the time to create the introduction for an essay about personality, they are helping themselves in writing a better essay.When writing the introduction for an essay about personality, the first thing a student needs to do is decide on the purpose for the essay. If the essay is not really meant to cover personality, then the sample of a basic introduction for an essay about personality will do the trick. It will provide a tool for the student to practice how to construct an introduction and what the purpose is.This is the perfect introduction to take to a school or college essay contest if the essay is meant to simply be about personality. This sample can be used by writers who are in the process of developing an essay on a new topic. Most people do not realize that the introduction to an essay on personality is one of the most important parts of the entire essay.By starting off the introduction with a paragraph, which states the question at the beginning of the essay, it gives a question to a reader. Once the reader has answered the question, they are free to expand on the introduction that is provided in the paragraph.Now, if the essay is meant to simply be about personality, the sample of a basic introduction for an essay about personality is not necessary. The next paragraph should start out with a statement of fact about the student. From there, the student can continue to explain what kind of person the student is by explaining how they think.Most students will describe the type of person that is cool, extroverted, introverted, quiet, or loud. Then, the student is allowed to describe how the student acts in certain situatio ns, how they speak in certain situations, and how they respond to others in certain situations.These are very interesting students that you might want to read. They have great experience and stories to tell. By using the sample of a basic introduction for an essay about personality, you are actually giving yourself the best chance to become a great writer.

WalMart

WalMart-SWOT Essay Strengths Wal-Mart is a powerful retail brand. It has a reputation for value for money, convenience and a wide range of products all in one store. Wal-Mart has grown substantially over recent years, and has experienced global expansion (for example its purchase of the United Kingdom based retailer ASDA). The company has a core competence involving its use of information technology to support its international logistics system. For example, it can see how individual products are performing country-wide, store-by-store at a glance. IT also supports Wal-Marts efficient procurement. A focused strategy is in place for human resource management and development. People are key to Wal-Marts business and it invests time and money in training people, and retaining a developing them. Weaknesses Wal-Mart is the Worlds largest grocery retailer and control of its empire, despite its IT advantages, could leave it weak in some areas due to the huge span of control. Since Wal-Mart sell products across many sectors (such as clothing, food, or stationary), it may not have the flexibility of some of its more focused competitors. The company is global, but has has a presence in relatively few countries Worldwide. We will write a custom essay on WalMart-SWOT specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Opportunities To take over, merge with, or form strategic alliances with other global retailers, focusing on specific markets such as Europe or the Greater China Region. The stores are currently only trade in a relatively small number of countries. Therefore there are tremendous opportunities for future business in expanding consumer markets, such as China and India. New locations and store types offer Wal-Mart opportunities to exploit market development. They diversified from large super centres, to local and mall-based sites. Opportunities exist for Wal-Mart to continue with its current strategy of large, super centres. Threats Being number one means that you are the target of competition, locally and globally. Being a global retailer means that you are exposed to political problems in the countries that you operate in. The cost of producing many consumer products tends to have fallen because of lower manufacturing costs. Manufacturing cost have fallen due to outsourcing to low-cost regions of the World. This has lead to price competition, resulting in price deflation in some ranges. Intense price competition is a threat. .

Self-Respect

Self-Respect The dismal fact is that self-respect has nothing to do with the approval of others - who are, after all, deceived easily enough; has nothing to do with reputation, which, as Rhett Butler told Scarlett O’Hara, is something people with courage can do without. ~Joan Didion, author of a Star is Born, winner of the National Book Award.   Self-respect is not easily achieved, because all around us we are barraged with stimuli telling us how great or worthless we are. The fact is, without self-respect, what others think consumes us. When we understand, love, and care for ourselves, and in turn our storytelling, we then have the mental maturity to sift through the judgment of others . . . picking and choosing which judgment is worth listening to. In this business, we get kicked around enough without doing it to ourselves. When I read on Facebook the comments in writers groups, where writers are depressed, wondering if they ought to keep writing because they cant make money, make sales, or receive glowing reviews, I feel sorry for them. Not for the reasons they express, but for their lack of self-respect. They are screaming it. When someone is self-assured, they are a magnet for others. After all, most people dont feel good about themselves, and they gravitate to those who do. When we are not shackled That doesnt mean we dont make mistakes. Frankly, the main reason writers self-publish is to own all the responsibility. That means they accept the responsibility for all that goes well and all that fails, both of which are good. Both of which make us stronger. We did it. We own it. We do what we want and accept the fallout or glory. To accept without placing blame on others is the epitome of self-respect. So write. Publish whichever way you like. If a choice fails you, avoid pointing the finger at anyone other than ones self. Analyze what happened and launch into another direction, wiser and stronger. To blame others means you struggle to look at yourself in the mirror. Once you get past that obstacle, you can do damn near anything you want because nobody is in your way. You do, adjust, do, adjust, until you are the grandest being, in love with who you are and what you do. Doors open to people like that, because people want to be you.

Psychology Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Psychology Research - Essay Example art John the Baptist: some, Elias; and others, Jeremias, or one of the prophets†, they could provide a more truthful answer without fear of retribution or disapproval (Matthew 16:14, King James Version). When Jesus further quizzed the disciples about what they thought, the disciples knew that the first answer was not right. Thus â€Å"Simon Peter answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God† (Matthew 16:16, King James Version). In which Jesus rewarded him with a blessing stating â€Å"Blessed art thou, Simon Barjona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven† (Matthew 16:17, King James Version). Jesus would have made an excellent interrogator. The methods he used are used today when interviewing a criminal or trying to get to the truth about a matter. He first asked whatever one else thought. This gives the individual being questioned a way to tell the truth without being embarrassed or looking guilty. When the disciples gave the wrong answer, then Jesus pressed them for what they thought. This allows a person to explain themselves. Finally after giving the answer being sought by Jesus, the disciple that answered was praised. Another point is Jesus questioned a crowd (at least twelve). That gives a sense of competition to get the answer right, sort of peer pressure. In the end, the statement of being â€Å"Son of man† was confirmed by Simon Peter. Jesus not only sublimely planted the answer, but made Simon Peter think it was his

The Effects of Dual Credit and Dual Enrollment on High School Students Essay

The Effects of Dual Credit and Dual Enrollment on High School Students - Essay Example To resolve this issue of seniors â€Å"blowing off the senior year† due to a lack of any substantial challenge, in 1973 the Project Advance program of Syracuse University was created (Andrews, 2004). Following this development the model was adopted by various institutions and consequently there was an emergence of a multitude of dual credit programs. In 1974, LaGuardia Community College, New York established the Middle College High School program targeting alienated and at risk students in typical high schools who potentially may not succeed in acquiring their diplomas (Lewis & Overman, 2008). Similar programs were adopted by Florida International University in 1982 (Partners in Progress) and Kingsborough Community College in 1984 (College Now). Motivated by the success of the Minnesota dual credit program, Washington State passed the ‘Running Start’ program in 1990 which allowed juniors and seniors with necessary qualifications to take college level courses at te chnical and community colleges without having to pay college tuition. In 1994 this was expanded to incorporate four year universities if there were no community colleges in the high school district (Kim & Bragg, 2008; Board, 2011) In 2004, the legislature founded House Bill 3103 which established federal guidelines tailored to provide assistance to high schools via increasing the magnitude of dual credit programs, expanding the breadth of the curriculum of these programs, and tutoring/mentoring students to aid in a seamless transition into postsecondary educational institutions (Washington State Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2005). Definitional Issues Opinion is divided among experts regarding the proper terminology that should be accorded to the opportunity provided to high school students to attend college classes which generate credits at both high school and college levels. The Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board defines a dual credit course as one that includes academic as well as technical courses. For the present purpose, dual enrollment hereon is defined following Klein (2007, p.23) as â€Å"courses that allow high school students to receive both high school and college credit simultaneo usly†. These modules are typically taught by professors or adjunct instructors belonging to the institution, and the same classes are attended by college and high school students. Concurrent enrollment for early-college high schools is also located on the college campus but only high school students attend class. The Early College High School, founded by the Bill and Melinda Gates foundation in 2002 serves traditionally underrepresented students by enabling them to access the simultaneous pursuit of college credits and a high school (American Institute for Research, 2009). Because they are easier to implement as well as less expensive, concurrent and dual enrollments have gained greater popularity (Karp & Bailey, April 2005). Kim & Bragg (2008) additionally distinguish articulated credit courses such as career and technical education, International Baccalaureate and Advanced Placement which only allow high school students to apply for the college credits. The present literatur e review will restrict its focus to concurrent and dual credit courses. Notably, these courses have the twin fold benefit of assisting a high school student either to an academic career or into the workforce (Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board, 2011). The paper will primarily address the following questions: 1. What are the principal benefits and major concerns for students who participate in dual enrollment/dual credit programs? 2. What are the central advantages and disadvantages for partnering institutions? 3. What